DEVELOPMENT OF AN ETHNOSCIENCE DATABASE AND ITS IMPACTS ON STUDENTS LEARNING OUTCOMES IN BASIC SCIENCE IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA

1.1Background to the Problem

Science serves as a veritable tool for the sustainable growth and development of a nation. Indeed the strength of a nation and the respect she commands from other nations are functions of her level of scientific and technological development. Science and Mathematics are the keys to innovation and power in today‟s world (Friedman, 2005). However, the increasing complexity of the world today imposes new and changing workforce requirements. This means that new workers will need ever more sophisticated skills in Science, Mathematics, Engineering and Technology which, in effect, require improved approaches to the teaching and learning of science.

It is also instructive to note that since Science and Technology aim at improving production and productivity, the standard of living of citizens in countries that develop scientifically and technologically is most likely to improve appreciably. Ahmed, Abimbola, Omosewo and Akanbi (2012) note that any nation wishing to be recognized globally must ensure

„she is sound fated in science and technology‟. Development in Science and Technology however does not come about by chance but by sound and conscious effort powered by appropriate, efficient and result-oriented science education that is dynamic enough to respond to current and emerging challenges. It is therefore not surprising to see nations that have visions invest heavily in the development of Science and Technology and constantly researching into how their educational systems can produce great scientists. Countries that are in the forefront scientifically, technologically and economically are those that have shown great improvement in the teaching and learning of Science and Mathematics. This reflects in learners‟ achievements in both subjects. For example, the report by the National Science Foundation (2002) on the performance of American science learners in Mathematics and that of Science achievement by

 

the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) shows generally that performance in Mathematics and Science has improved since the late 1960s and early 1970s. A slight decline in performance was experienced in the late 1970s, which however increased again during the 1980s and early 1990s, and has remained mostly stable since that time. NAEP Mathematics achievement has been increasing among 9-, 13-, and 17-year-old students since the early 1980s, although most of these gains occurred before 1992. In terms of international comparison, Science News (2012) reveals in its report on Global Student Achievement in Mathematics, Science and Reading Literacy that countries that have highest achievement in Science and Mathematics are the world leaders in terms of growth and development, using the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) which provides the first global assessment of Mathematics and Science.

TIMSS provides data about trends over time, measuring achievement in these subjects every four years at the fourth and eighth grades since 1995. As in previous cycles, TIMSS for 2011 -- the fifth assessment -- reports achievement at four international benchmarks that describe what students know and can do in Mathematics and Science, and can be used to help interpret achievement scores. In Mathematics at the fourth grade, Singapore, South Korea, and Hong Kong were top performers, followed by Chinese Taipei and Japan. Northern Ireland, the Flemish Community of Belgium, Finland, England, and the Russian Federation also performed very well. In addition, the US state of North Carolina also had high achievement, though lower than the East Asian countries. In Mathematics at the eighth grade, Korea, Singapore, and Chinese Taipei led the world in achievement, followed by Hong Kong and Japan. There was a substantial gap in achievement between these five East Asian countries and the next highest performing countries, including the Russian Federation, Israel, Finland, the United States, and England. For example, the gap in average achievement between Korea and England is more than 100 points. In addition, the US states of Massachusetts and Minnesota also had high achievements.

Korea and Singapore were the top performers in fourth-grade science, followed by Finland, Japan, the Russian Federation, Chinese Taipei and the United States. The US state of Florida also had high achievement, though not as high as the top seven. Singapore was the highest achiever in science at the eighth grade, followed by Chinese Taipei, Korea and Japan. Finland, Slovenia, the Russian Federation, Hong Kong, and England also performed well. In addition, Massachusetts had achievement higher than all countries except Singapore. The top- performing countries in fourth grade reading were Hong Kong, the Russian Federation, Finland and Singapore. Northern Ireland, the United States, Denmark, Croatia, and Chinese Taipei also had higher achievement than the majority of other participants. In addition, Florida and the Canadian province of Ontario were among the highest achieving participants.

In 2011, TIMSS assessed nearly 900,000 students worldwide from 63 countries and 14 benchmarking participants (TIMSS, 2012). The import of this analysis is to establish the fact that achievements in Science and Mathematics are precursors to growth and development. There is no doubt that the top performers identified above lead other countries scientifically, technologically and economically. Any country aiming for respect and global recognition must therefore develop more effective instructional approaches for the teaching and learning of Science and Mathematics.

In analysing achievement in science in a country like Nigeria, a holistic assessment can be done using the Basic Science platform. This is probably why Duada and Udofia (2010) state that Basic Science is actually an advanced integration of science. It integrates Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Earth Science. In terms of efforts, level of investment, educational programmes and policy formulation, Nigeria - like other developing and less developed countries

- has not been resting on her oars. It would be recalled that in 1968, under the Comparative Educational Study and Adaptation Centre (CESAC), Aiyetoro Basic Science Programme for lower forms (one and two) of the secondary school were instituted. This centre later became the

 

Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC). Attempts were made to teach the core science subjects (Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography, Health Science and Agricultural Science) as one entity.

Various conferences on science teaching and learning, such as those held in Droubja (Bulgaria) in 1968, Maryland (USA) in 1973 and Netherland in 1978, also recommended this integrated approach. These conferences, organised by UNESCO were fully supported and monitored by Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. (STAN). This is the antecedent of Integrated Science which was then introduced into the Nigerian Educational curricula. Integrated Science was meant to be taught for the first eight years of formal education. Afuwape and Olatoye (2004) report that UNESCO-UNICEF, in 1971, defined Integrated Science as an approach to teaching and learning of science in which concepts and principles are presented so as to express the fundamental unity of scientific thought and avoid pre-mature or undue stress on the distinctions between the various scientific fields. Integrated science was science presented to the child such that the child gained the concept of the fundamental unity of science, the commonality of approach to problems of scientific nature and an understanding of the role and function of science in everyday life and the world in which they live (FRN, 1984). A curriculum was therefore developed for this purpose.

To achieve the set goals, a Nigerian Integrated Science Project was commissioned. The fundamental aim of Nigerian Integrated Science Project, which is a process-oriented curriculum, was to develop science process skills in students. Though the curriculum specifies, hands-on process and skill acquisition, most children were not exposed to these real situations in the schools. Scientific, vocational and technological aspects of education were not effectively implemented. Hence, curriculum reviews to make it relevant to national development in line with the global and national demand of this era became imperative. The Federal Government of Nigeria informed by the need to attain the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) by the year

2015 together with the need to meet the critical targets of the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategies (NEEDS) - value re-orientation, poverty eradication, job creation, wealth generation and using education to empower the people - decided to introduce the 9 years of Basic Education and it became obvious that the existing curriculum for JSS should be reviewed, re-structured and realigned to fit into a 9 – year of Basic Education.

The National Council on Education (NCE), at its meeting in December 2005, then directed the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) to carry out this assignment. The NCE also approved the new curriculum as Basic Education Curricula. Consequently, a high level policy committee on curriculum development met and produced the guidelines for the curricula re-structuring (Duada and Udofia, 2010). The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) therefore organized a series of workshops between January and March 2006 in which eggheads from various fields and works of life worked assiduously to restructure the curricula. These curricula came into use with effect from September 2007. In the restructuring, Basic Science replaced Integrated Science. In general, the goals of the curricula reform were to reflect depth, appropriateness and inter-relatedness of the curricula contents. Emerging issues which covered value orientation, peace and dialogue including human rights education, family life, HIV/AIDS education, entrepreneurial skills etc. were fused into the 9 year of Basic Education Curricula. Additionally the curricula planners agreed that major issues shaping National and Global Development such as globalization, information and communication technology were essential inclusions in the Basic Education Curricula. Hence the following themes were infused into the Integrated Science curriculum to form the Basic Science curriculum:

·Environmental Education

 

·Drug Abuse Education

 

·Population and Family Life Education

 

·Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) including HIV/AIDS (FRN, 2006).

 

Duada and Udofia, (2010) maintain that one of the cardinal precautions in the production of the Basic Science curriculum is to ensure continuity. This is why some relevant themes in the Integrated Science are still maintained in the Basic Science curriculum. As stated earlier, Integrated Science was science presented to the child such that, the child gains; the concept of the fundamental unity of a science, the commonality of approach to problem of a scientific nature and an understanding of the role and function of science in everyday life, and the world in which he/she lives. (FGN, 1984). Basic science on the other hand is the basic training in scientific skills requirement for human survival, sustainable development and societal transformation. Basic Science combines science and technology. It attempts to provide a holistic presentation of science and technology with the theme „You and Technology‟. This was designed to expose students to developing science and technological skills, which will assist them to make informed decisions, develop survival strategies and learn to contribute and live quantitatively in the global community.

The issue of Basic Science cannot be addressed without reference to the Universal Basic Education (UBE).which was launched in 1999 with a full legal backing by the Compulsory Free Universal Basic Education Act of 2004. The Universal Basic Education (UBE) covers the Primary school and the first three years of the Secondary School usually known as the Junior Secondary School. The word „Basic‟ in UBE informs the term „Basic‟ for all courses taught under the basic education programme. Science became Basic Science. The 9-Year Basic Education Curriculum is divided into three basic levels:

1.Lower Basic Level- Primaries 1-3

 

2.Middle Basic Level- Primaries 4-6

 

3.Upper Basic Level- JSS 1-3

 

The Curriculum as developed by the Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) from the primary and junior secondary curricula enumerated the objectives of the new Basic Education Curriculum in Science and Technology as they apply to the learners as follows:

a)To develop interest in science and technology;

 

b)To apply their basic knowledge and skills in science and technology to meet societal needs;

 

c)To take advantage of the numerous career opportunities offered by the study of science and technology and

d)To become prepared for further studies in science and technology.

 

In order to achieve the above objectives, Danmole (2011) asserts that the use of different teaching methods and strategies to ensure students‟ understanding of topics becomes imperative. This assertion informed the use of a number of innovative methods and strategies in teaching Basic Science and by extension other science subjects in general. Yet the results have been anything but impressive. While they have been proved to have worked somewhere else, they do not seem to have worked among science learners in Nigeria. Years after the introduction of Basic Science, what is the level of achievement of the science learner? An analysis of the Junior Secondary School Certificate Examination (JSSCE) results as shown below is apt.

Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1 below show an unstable performance pattern. Within the 10- year analysis, performance in three years (2006, 2010 and 2011) was below 50% in terms of credit passes and above. The performance was just above 50% in six years (2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2007). It is only in 2005 that the performance rose far above 50% to 64.90%. But it was like a flash in the pan as performance fell considerably by 17% the following year (2006) to 47.91%. Another worrisome and noticeable trend is that in more recent years, performance has been below 50 %.( 2010 and 2011).

 

Table 1.1: Analysis of JSSCE Integrated Science/ Basic Science Result, Nigeria

Year Number of Candidates

Registered Number with

Credit (A-C) % Number without

Credit (P-F) %

2000 12719 7324 57.58 5395 42.42

2001 12984 7286 56.11 5698 43.90

2002 14725 7597 51.60 7128 48.40

2003 16916 9013 53.30 7903 46.72

2004 17613 9492 53.87 8125 46.13

2005 19362 12561 64.90 6801 35.13

2006 18913 9062 47.91 9851 52.10

2007 20614 11585 56.20 9029 43.80

2010 15803 6639 42.01 9164 57.99

2011 16429 7693 46.83 8736 53.17

Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Research Statistics and Planning Section, 2011 [The examination was not conducted in 2008 and 2009]

 

To show clearly the pattern of changes in the result, Figure 1.1 is presented below. It shows graphically the falling and rising pattern of the result. It is a clear indication of the level of instability in science achievement of learners. This is definitely unacceptable for a nation aspiring for greatness in science and technology.

 

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2010 2011

Fig 1.1 JSSCE Credit Passes In Basic Science (2000-2011)

 

 

This unacceptable general situation of science achievement in Nigeria has been a source of concern to scholars in the area of science education. A number of reasons have been adduced for this and various solutions are being proffered. Ajayi (2005) identifies the shortage of qualified teachers who are associated with high quality instruction. Other researchers, such as Ogundare (2008), attribute the low performance to inadequate provision of materials and instructional resources that could facilitate science teaching and learning. Erinosho (2004) pins down the reason for low achievement in science to poor understanding of scientific concepts by students. Osuafor (2008) maintains that the failure of teachers to put into use research findings and recommendations is responsible for low science achievement. Ibraheem and Oladele (2010) however maintain that low achievement in science is caused by the use of inappropriate, non- effective teaching methodology by teachers.

Some scholars also link poor achievement in Basic Science to negative attitude of learners to the subject because of wrong perception. Adodo and Gbore (2012) note the negative attitude of Nigerian students to Basic Science and observe that very few students love studying the subject and those who study it are mostly those who want to use it as a “job ticket‟. Some other researchers believe that the subject is made up of “hard‟ science subjects such as Physics,

 

Chemistry, Biology and Agricultural Science. Other reasons identified include the fact that teachers are unable to satisfy the students‟ aspirations or goals and teachers do not often provide the career incentives and explain career opportunities for students to appreciate the role of the scientist. This has often led to variations in goals between learners, teachers, parents and industries. Adodo and Gbore (2012) also maintain that instructional methods often used have no bearing on the students‟ practical life.

Hiwatig (2008) narrows the reason for poor achievement in science to lack of regard for the cultural belief of learners which greatly influence the attitude. He therefore recommends the use of ethno-scientific teaching approach for classroom instruction in science. It is therefore important that an approach that is practical and relates science concepts to the day-to-day life of the learners be developed. An instructional approach of this nature may therefore serve as the elixir needed to inject life into the attitudinal disposition of science learners.

Of greater concern, however, is the problem of underachievement of learners in science in Africa and other parts of the world where daily activities are still greatly influenced by cultural beliefs. Research findings suggest that learning of science among students in traditional settings have been made difficult by the conflicts between Western modern science and cultural beliefs. In so many different cultural settings, educators have been faced with the problem of teaching pupils Western science without the assimilation of the concepts (Jegede, 1995; Kawagley, 1995; Lee, 1997; Lowe, 1995; MacIvor, 1995; Nelson-Barber and Estrin, 1995; O'Loughlin, 1992; Pomeroy, 1994). Ogonnaya (2011) while analysing the situation in Nigeria affirms that the neglect of the diverse cultural activities and beliefs of students and the failure of teachers to consider varied cultural resources of the students in teaching biology (and other sciences) remains one of the major reasons for students‟ alienation from sciences. Earlier studies in Nigeria and Ghana (Bajah 1981, Jegede & Okebukola 1991, Akpan & Anamuah-Mensah, 1992 and Wasagu, 1999) have shown that students‟ cultural beliefs and ways of learning are hardly

affected by their knowledge in science, even when studying at undergraduate level. Jegede and Aikenhead (2005) maintain that for many pupils worldwide, conventional school science seems highly disconnected from practical ends. "Science learned in schools is learned as science in school, not as science on the farm or in the health clinic or garage" (Medvitz, 1985). Aisiku (2007) also adduces the  reason for underachievement of learners in science to the disjoint between what is learnt in the science class and everyday life of typical learners in traditional settings.

The concern shown by scholars is informed not only by the need to improve learning outcomes of this set of learners but also   because of the ever increasing importance of science and technology in today‟s world as earlier explained. It is disheartening to note that no African country is listed among the thirty most technologically advanced countries in the world (EIU, 2007).   Only two African countries made the list in which 65 countries were ranked. South Africa is 35th while Nigeria is 60th. This position is completely unacceptable. For how long will African people and others countries that are still largely influenced by their cultural background continue to play second fiddle to others in the world of science?

And as science has become ever more deeply embedded in our everyday life, how ordinary people perceive science has therefore, attracted growing attention not only from the scientific community, but also from social scientists (Bak, 2001). Incidentally the aims of the major worldwide reform in science education, initiated in America after the passage of Haley‟s comet in 1986, include: science for all and inclusion of a broader view of science, teaching for understanding and application of science knowledge and processes and „Less is better‟ (Udeani, 2007).

These goals, especially science for all and inclusion of a broader view of science, accentuate the need by scholars for a consideration of learners‟ cultural background in the teaching and learning of science. To be able to do this, the understanding of how learners deal

with cognitive conflicts between everyday life world and the world of school science is required. Everyday life refers to the learners‟ cultural environment comprising social attitudes, beliefs, principles and conventions developed over a long period of time and a range of experiences. Students come to school with these experiences, serving as prior knowledge, which Pfundt and Duit (1991) maintain are highly resistant to change and strongly influence learning and may lead to unintended interpretation of concepts. These interpretations are collectively known as alternative conceptions. This is why Jegede and Aikenhead (1999) maintain that for many pupils worldwide, conventional school science seems highly disconnected from practical ends. "Science learned in schools is learned as science in school, not as science on the farm or in the health clinic or garage" (Medvitz, 1985, p. 15). In discussing the influence of cultural background in learning science, Tobin (1990) asserts that learning science involves negotiating meaning, comparing what is known (prior knowledge) to new experience and resolving discrepancies between what is known and  what seems to be implied by new experiences.

When prior knowledge relates to cultural environment or background, some scholars find it more convenient to refer to it as Traditional Ecological Knowledge (Snively and Corsiglia, 2000). The ambiguous nature of terms like traditional, indigenous, ecological, alternative conceptions however poses a problem. An attempt to avoid these terms and issues surrounding them made some scholars hold on to the use of the term Ethnoscience. Ogunleye (2007) states that when scientists occasionally took note of indigenous knowledge of nature, that knowledge is distinctively labelled Ethnoscience and never simply science. He further maintains that to make meaning out of their experiences in science classrooms, students need to negotiate a cultural transition from their life world into the world of school science. He concludes that science education must be culture sensitive for it to serve the emerging global community. Baimba (1993) maintains that culture is not an accidental collection of customs and habits. It is transmitted from generation to generation in form of hidden curricula, even if it was not taught in

formal school education. He concludes that the disparity between traditional and scientific cultures has not engendered positive outcomes from studying science in many non-western societies. He advises that instead of superimposing value that are hardly ever assimilated by traditional children, science education might best serve as a medium for bridging the gap between traditional and scientific outlooks of nature and knowledge. He stresses that cultural consideration in science curriculum innovations in non-Western societies is a must.

Until the recent past, little attempt had been made by researchers at tracing the connection between ethnoscience and science education. However, attention is now gradually shifting to the science exposure of students who live in communities where traditional practices guide and influence daily activities and actions. The import of this in the current discussion is expressed by George (2001) who explains “science for all‟ as science that is meaningful and useful in daily life. Science for all or science for daily living takes on new meaning when indigenous knowledge of learners is considered. To develop school science programmes that are intended, not for a select few, but for all students, cognizance must be taken of the indigenous knowledge embedded in the culture of the users of such programmes.

The implementation of the ethno-scientific teaching approach was therefore based on the recommendations for teaching science by the CCIP (2002) and the Science for All movement (UNESCO, 1991) which are that: (1) the content, language, symbols, designs, and purpose of the curriculum should be linked to day-to-day experiences and goals of the children; (2) theory should be linked to practice, human purpose, the quality of life, and in-school experience to out- of-school experience; and (3) teaching and learning should begin from the beliefs, interests, and learning skills that students bring to the classroom and should help each of them extend and revise their ability and understanding (Hiwatig, 2008).

Based on the above, many scholars suggest the acceptance of the consideration of cultural background as necessary in planning science instructions. In essence, “science learning must

provide a platform that allows learners to achieve a rich understanding of a scientific topic by successfully integrating accurate scientific knowledge with their own personal knowledge of the world” (Kyle, 1989). Aisiku (2007) while noting the pedagogical imperatives of learners‟ cultural background maintains that teachers must acknowledge and respect the dignity and worth of students‟ home and cultural environments. Key (2009) also states that what is sought and needed in science classrooms is a model that integrates the learning of the traditional science with the cultures within the classroom. She maintains that culturally inclusive model demonstrates that the equity pedagogy and the content integration dimensions are not mutually exclusive. Culturally inclusive science integrates the learner‟s culture into the academic and social context of the science classroom to aid and support science learning (Baptiste & Key, 1996). Abonyi (1999) notes that current instructional approaches in science education which did not take into consideration prior cultural beliefs seemed to have contributed to poor concept formation and students interest in science.

Empirical evidences also support the assertions of scholars enunciated above. For instance, Wasagu (1999) reports a strong relationship between cultural beliefs and scientific achievements. A number of scholars have also identified cultural beliefs as a major cause of under-achievement in science, technology and mathematics education. Ivowi (1992) supports this assertion in respect of Nigeria by noting that the conflict between cultural beliefs and science is one of the major causes of poor performance in science, technology and mathematics education in Nigeria. Okeke and Njelita (2002) are more emphatic when they conclude that conflict between cultural beliefs and school science is one of the major causes of poor conception of scientific phenomena and interest in science. These assertions have great implications on teaching and learning of science in Nigeria with her one hundred and seventy two ethnic groups, each having its own different belief and cultural practices that marks it out as a unique entity (Modo, 2002). There were, therefore, speculations that the introduction of

ethnoscientific concepts, theories and paradigms into the science curriculum and instruction may bridge the gulf between the culture of the learner and modern science (Fafunwa, 1983)

The question that however arises is whether science as taught today is completely lacking in cultural orientation? In answering the question, Cobern (1991) posits that science as currently taught reflects western history and western foundational beliefs or world views. Lawton (1984) earlier concluded that modern science was based on the culture of Western Europe and Northern America collectively known as “Western culture”. This is why Ogunniyi (1990) is of the view that non-western modes of thought and scientific mode of thinking were diametrically opposite to each other on „a linear theory of social change‟.

The initial efforts at solving this problem seem misdirected. For example, Fafunwa, Macauley and Sokoya (1989) recommend the mother tongue approach based on the success of a programme in which students were taught science using the local language. He is, however, criticized for transmitting western science concepts in local language (Abonyi, 1999). Achimugu (1995), in his own case recommends the use of improved local instructional materials. He is said to have succeeded only in improvising western instructional materials. The two recommendations have not removed the „western‟ in them (Abonyi, 1999). Various conferences such as those held in Addis Ababa in 1961, Tanunarive in 1962, and Lagos in 1964 have also made failed attempts at integrating indigenous elements into science curriculum (Eshiet, 1991).

The studies reviewed so far have focused on identification of cultural beliefs hindering achievements in science, effect of neglecting the diverse cultural activities and beliefs of students in science and conflicts between modern science and cultural beliefs. However, studies on how the knowledge of these beliefs could be used to improve the learning of science are scanty. There is therefore the need for a new approach in this direction.

 

Such approach must meet some criteria. George (2001) in her work on culture and science education states that a workable approach to science education that incorporates indigenous knowledge must be able to:

·draw upon cultural experience and everyday life.

 

·access different ways of thinking about scientific concepts.

 

·bridge the gap between the traditional and the conventional.

She maintains that, to many students, science and culture have links. She asserts that for students in traditional settings, daily living is guided at least to some extent by a knowledge system that is different from conventional science as taught in schools. This knowledge is typically passed down orally from one generation to the next according to her. She states further that to be able to do this, scholars are currently faced with the challenges of identifying, analysing and documenting traditional knowledge and structuring it for use in the classroom. Supporting this view, Ogonnaya (2011) states that both local and national research should be carried out comprehensively to identify and document such concepts and processes in the cultural activities of all the tribes and communities in Nigeria. For the achievement of this task, the development of a database of science-related cultural beliefs and expressions, which often reflect in various activities of the people especially their common sayings, should be appealing to a versatile researcher.

An Ethnoscience database useful in a classroom setting will therefore be desirable. Such a database would be a ready source of science related common verbal expressions (prevailing in the learner‟s society) for implementing ethnoscience instructions. What would be the effects of such a culture-based instructional design on students‟ cognitive achievement in science? This question is appropriate because some scholars have identified the use of instructional methods that did not take into consideration the indigenous knowledge of learners as a major cause of under achievement  in science  (Okebukola, 1991 and Jegede, 1999). This  seems to  lead to

conflict between modern science and cultural beliefs. To Okeke and Njelita (2002), this conflict is a major cause of poor conception of scientific phenomena and interest in science. Ethnoscience instruction would therefore shed more light on various issues raised in respect of cultural beliefs and modern science. A necessity for this is a database which would be easily accessible if it is made available through a simple search and retrieve computer programme as done in this study.

A number of variables have been suggested as capable of affecting students‟ attitude towards science. Some of these are beliefs and values about an object or situation. Young and Horton (1992) are of the opinion that emotion tied to object influences knowledge assimilation as well as behaviour. Interestingly, Rokeach (1968, p.4) had earlier in his book linked beliefs and attitudes together in his definition of beliefs. He explains beliefs to mean“… a relatively enduring organization of attitude around an object which will predispose man to respond in some preferential manner”. The effects of ethnoscientific beliefs on attitude will therefore provide an empirical evidence for whatever link (if any) that exists between beliefs and attitude.

Studies on the effect of school location on cognitive achievement in science indicate conflicting results. Akintunde (2004) who worked on environmental education concepts concludes that students in urban centres had better cognitive performance than those in rural centres but Kannapol and Deyoung (1999) express contrary opinion. Fehintola (2003) however asserts that there is no significant difference in the academic achievement of female students in terms of school location. Because it is popularly believed that culture is richer in the rural areas than urban areas, what effects would school environment in terms of location have on students‟ cognitive achievement, attitude to science and conception of scientific phenomena in respect of this study?

Parent Educational Status (PES) is a measure of the level of education of parents. While Lee, Bryk and Smith (1993) maintain that Socio-Economic Status (SES) is one of the best

predictors of students achievement, Sirin (2005) concludes that Parent Educational Status is considered one of the most stable aspects of Socio-Economic Status (SES) because it is typically established at an early age and tends to remain the same over time. Various studies attest to the fact that the family plays a meaningful role in a child‟s academic performance and development (Tucker, Harris, Brady, & Herman, 1996).

Parent educational status has also been identified as an important factor affecting student achievement (Dryfoos, 1990). The study carried out by Rhea and Otto (2001) shows that the mothers‟ level of education and family incomes influence adolescent educational outcome expectancy beliefs. Rumberger (1995) explains that students‟ “family background is widely recognized as the most significant important contributor to success in schools” (p 587). This assertion is supported by the findings of earlier researchers who argued that the home has a major influence on students‟ school success (Swick & Duff, 1978) and that it is the quality of relationships within students‟ home environments that has an important effect on school performance (Selden, 1990; Caldas, 1993). More educated parents are assumed to create environments that facilitate learning (Williams, 1980; Teachman, 1987). Other research evidences show that learners with high-PES exhibit higher average levels of achievement than those with low-PES (Jabor, Machtmes, Kungu, Buntat & Nordin, 2011). Chen (2009) concludes that parents‟ education has been found to be a key determinant of student achievement. The studies examined show that there is the need for further studies on the effect of this variable on science learners especially those in the traditional setting. What then would be the effect of Parent Educational Status (PES) on learning outcomes using Ethnoscience-based instructional method?